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Biodiesel Production - Technologies, Challenges, and Future Prospects, 2019

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Biodiesel Production - Technologies, Challenges, and Future Prospects, 2019

Contents
Preface
Contributing Authors
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Biodiesel Basics [Go to Page]
1.1 Biodiesel History
1.2 Properties of Biodiesel [Go to Page]
1.2.1 Chemical Composition
1.2.2 Cetane Number
1.2.3 Oxidative Stability
1.2.4 Heat of Combustion
1.2.5 Density of Biodiesel
1.2.6 Viscosity of Biodiesel
1.2.7 Cold Flow Properties
1.2.8 Iodine Value
1.3 Biodiesel Standards
1.4 Biodiesel versus Other Biorefinery Products
1.5 Biodiesel Blending, Storage, and Transport [Go to Page]
1.5.1 Biodiesel Blending
1.5.2 Storage and Transport
1.6 Performance of Biodiesel as a Fuel and Demonstration of its Usage
References
Chapter 2: Biodiesel: Variations, Properties, and Comparison with Diesel [Go to Page]
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Variations in Biodiesel
2.3 Physicochemical Aspects
2.4 Contaminants in Biodiesel
2.5 Particulate Emissions
2.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Biodiesel Production by Transesterification [Go to Page]
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Transesterification of Oil/Fat to Biodiesel [Go to Page]
3.2.1 Catalyst Impact
3.2.2 Effect of Alcohol Type
3.2.3 Effect of Oil Type
3.2.4 Alcohol-to-Oil Ratio
3.2.5 Assisted Transesterification
3.3 Transesterification of Oil-Bearing Substances to Biodiesel
3.4 Biodiesel Production
3.5 Summary
3.6 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification for Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Feedstocks and General Methods for Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
4.2.1 Potential Feedstocks
4.2.2 Overview of Transesterification Methods
4.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification for Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
4.3.1 Sources of Lipases
4.3.2 Lipase Enzyme Production
4.3.3 Reaction Mechanism of Lipase-Assisted Transesterification
4.3.4 Extracellular Lipases
4.3.5 Intracellular Lipases and Whole-Cell Immobilization
4.3.6 Parameters Affecting Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterifications
4.3.7 Immobilization of Lipases for Transesterification
4.3.8 Reactors for Immobilized Lipase-Based Transesterification
4.4 Cost Analysis of Immobilized Lipase-Based Transesterification
4.5 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Plant Oil to Biodiesel [Go to Page]
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
5.2.1 Commonly Used Edible Oils
5.2.2 Commonly Used Nonedible Oils
5.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Plant Oils
5.4 Transesterification Processes of Plant Oils [Go to Page]
5.4.1 Homogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Process
5.4.2 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Process
5.4.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Transesterification Process
5.4.4 Supercritical Transesterification Process
5.5 Challenges in Biodiesel Production from Plant Oils
5.6 Future Work and Prospects
5.7 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Animal Fat Biodiesel [Go to Page]
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sources of Animal Fats for Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
6.2.1 Edible and Inedible Tallow Products
6.2.2 Lard Products
6.2.3 Poultry Fat
6.2.4 Fish Waste
6.3 Comparative Studies of Free Fatty Acids
6.4 Effect of Metals on Tallow, Lard, Poultry, and Fish Fat
6.5 Conversion of Animal Fats into Biodiesel Using Charcoal and CO2 [Go to Page]
6.5.1 Using CO2
6.5.2 Using Charcoal
6.6 Measuring the Economic Impact of Animal Fat Biodiesel
6.7 Pros and Cons of Animal Fat Biodiesel
6.8 Summary
6.9 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7: Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil [Go to Page]
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sources of Waste Cooking Oil
7.3 Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil [Go to Page]
7.3.1 Factors Affecting Waste Cooking Oil
7.3.2 Transesterification
7.3.3 Purification of Biodiesel
7.4 Comparison between Waste Cooking Oil and Virgin Oil
7.5 Cost Analysis of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil
7.6 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Microalgae Oil Biodiesel [Go to Page]
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
8.2.1 Microalgae Diversity
8.2.2 Composition of Microalgae Oil
8.2.3 Microalgae Oil Content and Productivities
8.3 Impact Factors of Microalgae Production and Oil Accumulation [Go to Page]
8.3.1 Microalgae Strain
8.3.2 Nutrient Source
8.3.3 Cultivation Conditions
8.4 Microalgae Cultivation Systems [Go to Page]
8.4.1 Open Pond Cultivation System
8.4.2 Closed Photobioreactor Cultivation System
8.4.3 Hybrid Cultivation Systems
8.5 Microalgae Biomass Harvest
8.6 Possibility of Microalgae Biodiesel
8.7 Summary
References
Chapter 9: Single Cell Oil Biodiesel [Go to Page]
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Characteristics of Single Cell Oil
9.3 Oleaginous Microorganisms for Single Cell Oil Production
9.4 Substrates Utilized for Single Cell Oil Production
9.5 Factors Affecting Production of Single Cell Oil
9.6 Degradation of Lipids in Carbon Limitation
9.7 Biochemistry of Single Cell Oil Production in Yeast [Go to Page]
9.7.1 Fatty Acid Synthesis
9.7.2 Glycerol Backbone Synthesis
9.7.3 Triacylglycerol Synthesis
9.7.4 Single Cell Oil Production Pathway from Hydrophobic Substrates
9.8 Genetic Engineering for Single Cell Oil Production
9.9 Cost and Economic Consideration in Single Cell Oil Production
9.10 Challenges and Prospects
9.11 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Biodiesel Production from Oleaginous Microorganisms with Organic Wastes as Raw Materials [Go to Page]
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Organic Wastes for Oleaginous Microorganism Cultivation [Go to Page]
10.2.1 Bioconversion of Agriculture Wastes to Biodiesel
10.2.2 Bioconversion of Industrial Wastes to Biodiesel
10.2.3 Bioconversion of Residential Wastes to Biodiesel
10.3 Parameters Affecting Lipid Accumulation [Go to Page]
10.3.1 pH Effects
10.3.2 Temperature Effects
10.3.3 DO Agitation and Aeration Effects
10.3.4 C/N Ratio Effects
10.3.5 Trace Elements Effect
10.3.6 Fermentation Mode Effects
10.4 Case Studies
10.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
10.6 Summary
10.7 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11: Oil Extraction Using Wastewater Sludge [Go to Page]
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Methods of Sludge Disposal [Go to Page]
11.2.1 Agricultural Reuse
11.2.2 Incineration
11.2.3 Scum Disposal
11.3 Sludge Characterization
11.4 Valuable Products from Wastewater Sludge
11.5 Recent Studies on Oil Extraction Using Wastewater Sludge [Go to Page]
11.5.1 Thermochemical: Pyrolysis
11.5.2 Mechanical-Chemical
11.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Oil Extraction Processes
11.7 Comparison of Sludge-Based Oil with Other Oils
11.8 Techno-Economic Evaluation [Go to Page]
11.8.1 Thermochemical
11.8.2 Mechanical-Chemical
11.9 Recent Advancements and Future Perspectives [Go to Page]
11.9.1 In Situ Transesterification
11.9.2 Nanoparticles for Oil Extraction
11.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Biodiesel Production Using Fermented Wastewater Sludge-Derived Lipids [Go to Page]
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Characteristics of Wastewater Sludge
12.3 Biodiesel from Wastewater Sludge-Derived Lipids
12.4 Factors Affecting Lipid Production Using Wastewater Sludge
12.5 Lipid Accumulation in Oleaginous Microorganisms Fed with Sludge
12.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives
12.7 Summary
References
Chapter 13: Conversion of Crude Glycerol to Lipid and Biodiesel [Go to Page]
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Characteristics and Composition of Crude Glycerol
13.3 Rationale for Use of Crude Glycerol in Lipid Production
13.4 Metabolism for Glycerol Uptake
13.5 Recent Studies on Lipid Production from Crude Glycerol [Go to Page]
13.5.1 Selection of Strains Utilizing Crude Glycerol
13.5.2 Fermentation Cultivation Mode
13.5.3 Optimization of C/N Ratio, Media Components, and Fermentation Parameters
13.5.4 Pretreatment of Crude Glycerol
13.5.5 Coculture System for Lipid Production
13.5.6 Other Studies
13.6 Analysis of Studies Reported in Literature [Go to Page]
13.6.1 Fermentation Profiles for Reported Studies
13.7 Major Findings from Previous Studies and Future Perspectives [Go to Page]
13.7.1 Treatment of Crude Glycerol
13.7.2 Selection of Cultivation Mode
13.7.3 Optimization of Media Components
13.7.4 Optimization of Fermentation Parameters
13.7.5 Genetic and Metabolic Engineering of Selected Strains
13.8 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Lignocellulosic Biomass: The Future Renewable Low-Cost Carbon Source for Microbial Lipid Production [Go to Page]
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Lipid Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass [Go to Page]
14.2.1 Lipids from Lignocellulose-Derived Sugars
14.2.2 Fractionation of Lignocellulosic Biomass
14.2.3 Saccharification of Cellulose and Hemicellulose Polymer
14.3 Fermentation [Go to Page]
14.3.1 Organisms that Can Grow on LCB Hydrolysates
14.4 Types of Fermentation for Lipid Production [Go to Page]
14.4.1 Submerged and Solid-State Fermentation
14.4.2 Fed-Batch and Continuous Fermentation
14.4.3 Carbon Source Assimilation and Lipid Accumulation by M. isabellina in Corn Fiber Hydrolysate
14.4.4 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation Using Filamentous Fungus
14.4.5 Co-utilization of Fermentable Sugars in Lignocellulosic Biomass Hydrolysate
14.5 Pretreatment Inhibitors and Their Effect on Microbial Growth and Lipid Accumulation
14.6 Summary
References
Chapter 15: Lipid Extraction Technologies [Go to Page]
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Cell Disruption
15.3 Physical Technologies of Lipid Separation [Go to Page]
15.3.1 Expeller Pressing
15.3.2 Thermal Extraction
15.3.3 Ultrasonication
15.4 Chemical Technologies of Lipid Separation [Go to Page]
15.4.1 Organic Solvent Extraction
15.4.2 Supercritical Fluid Lipid Extraction
15.4.3 Other Technologies for Lipid Extraction
15.5 Summary
15.6 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16: Milking of Lipids from Oleaginous Microorganisms [Go to Page]
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Microbial Potential for Lipid Production
16.3 Milking Methods to Extract Lipids [Go to Page]
16.3.1 Biocompatible Organic Solvent
16.3.2 Pulsed Electric Field
16.3.3 Spontaneous Oozing
16.3.4 Membrane Transport Proteins
16.4 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 17: Application of Nanotechnology in Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Lipid Production Using Nanotechnology
17.3 Lipid Extraction Using Nanotechnology
17.4 Nanotechnology in Selective Purification of Hydrocarbons from Oil [Go to Page]
17.4.1 Selective Extraction of Free Fatty Acids from Oil
17.4.2 Purification of Polyunsaturated Free Fatty Acids
17.5 Nanotechnology in the Transesterification Reaction [Go to Page]
17.5.1 Transesterification in a Microreactor
17.5.2 Transesterification by Enzyme Immobilization
17.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Genetic/Metabolic Engineering and Synthetic Biology Applications to Improve Single Cell Oil Accumulation [Go to Page]
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Basic Gene Transfer Mechanisms [Go to Page]
18.2.1 Gene Transfer via Vectors
18.2.2 Physical Gene Transfer Mechanisms
18.2.3 Gene Delivery through Chemical Carriers
18.3 Advances in Genetic Engineering Tools [Go to Page]
18.3.1 Transformation Techniques
18.3.2 Heterologous Protein Expression
18.3.3 Site-Specific Genome Editing
18.4 Multiple Knowledge Needed for Planning the Genetic Engineering [Go to Page]
18.4.1 Genomic, Proteomic, and Transcriptome Profiles
18.4.2 Metabolomics and Silico Models
18.5 Genetic Engineering Strategies for Lipid Production [Go to Page]
18.5.1 Blocking the Competing Pathways
18.5.2 Deregulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
18.5.3 Optimization of Enzyme Expression Levels
18.5.4 Balancing Cofactor Generation and Utilization
18.5.5 Availing Excess Precursors for Fatty Acid Synthesis
18.6 Genetic Engineering in Algae [Go to Page]
18.6.1 Genome Characterization
18.6.2 Transformation
18.6.3 Photo-Inhibition
18.6.4 Carbon Assimilation
18.7 Improvement in Biodiesel Production by Genetic Engineering [Go to Page]
18.7.1 Lipid Quantity
18.7.2 Lipid Quality
18.7.3 In Situ Biodiesel Production
18.7.4 Engineering the Downstream Processes
18.8 Importance of Gene Constructs and Synergy of Operons
18.9 Challenges in Designing Metabolic Pathways [Go to Page]
18.9.1 Gene Discovery and Pathway Construction
18.9.2 Characterizing Enzyme Expression by Proteomics
18.9.3 Optimization of Expression Levels of Protein
18.10 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 19: Recovery and Purification Technologies of Biodiesel [Go to Page]
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Biodiesel Separation Techniques [Go to Page]
19.2.1 Gravitational Settling
19.2.2 Centrifugation
19.3 Biodiesel Purification Techniques [Go to Page]
19.3.1 Conventional Biodiesel Purification Techniques
19.3.2 New Biodiesel Purification Technology (Membrane Technology)
19.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Purification Technologies
19.4 Quality Testing of Biodiesel
19.5 Storage, Stability, and Transportation
19.6 Future Work and Prospects
19.7 Summary
19.8 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 20: Purification of Biodiesel Using Resins and Adsorbents [Go to Page]
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Recent Case Studies [Go to Page]
20.2.1 Silica as Adsorbent for Biodiesel Purification
20.2.2 Purification of Biodiesel Using Ion-Exchange Resins
20.2.3 Wastes as an Adsorbent for Purifying Biodiesel
20.3 Comparative Studies among Adsorbents, Ion-Exchange Resins, and Wet-Washing Methods
20.4 Research on Improvement of Ion-Exchangers and Adsorbents for Biodiesel Purification
20.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Management of Coproducts from Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Bioresidue Generated after Harvest and Extraction of Oil from Agricultural Biomass [Go to Page]
21.2.1 Crop Residues during Harvest
21.2.2 Coproducts Generated after Extraction of Oil from Agricultural Biomass
21.2.3 Crude Glycerol
21.2.4 Wastewater
21.3 Coproduct Management [Go to Page]
21.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion and Biogas Production
21.3.2 Production of Other Fuels
21.3.3 Animal Feed
21.3.4 Chemical Feedstock from Crude Glycerol and Other Residual Biomass
21.3.5 Biomaterial Applications
21.3.6 Thermal Degradation of Residual Mass after Extraction of Oil
21.3.7 Microbial Cultivation on Residual Mass Generated during Biodiesel Production
21.3.8 Nutraceutical and Bioactive Compound Extraction from Residue
21.3.9 Fertilizers
21.4 Biorefinery Concept
21.5 Conclusions
21.6 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 22: Economic Evaluation of Biodiesel Production Processes [Go to Page]
22.1 Historical Account of Biodiesel Industry Development
22.2 Necessity of Techno-Economic Evaluations [Go to Page]
22.2.1 Economic Fallout of Biodiesel Industry
22.3 Evaluations with Vegetable Oil and Waste Cooking Oil [Go to Page]
22.3.1 Vegetable Oil for Biodiesel Production
22.3.2 Waste Cooking Oil for Biodiesel Production
22.4 Techno-Economic Studies with Algal Oil
22.5 Advent of Single Cell Oil and Techno-Economic Shortcomings
22.6 Cost Considerations in Downstream Processing [Go to Page]
22.6.1 Biomass Harvesting
22.6.2 Economics of Lipid Extraction and Separation
22.7 Cost Consideration in the Transesterification Process [Go to Page]
22.7.1 Comparison of Cost between Transesterification Reactors
22.7.2 Reactants in Transesterification
22.7.3 Effect of Impurities on Oil for Biodiesel Conversion
22.8 Post-Transesterification Purification Cost Consideration [Go to Page]
22.8.1 Wet Washing
22.8.2 Dry Washing
22.8.3 Techno-Economic Comparison for Biodiesel Purification Techniques
22.9 Evaluation of Economic Feasibility [Go to Page]
22.9.1 Return on Investment
22.9.2 Cash Flow Analysis
22.9.3 Investments, Profits, Revenues, and Credits
22.9.4 Cost of Unit Production
22.9.5 Payback Period
22.10 Global Biodiesel Economy and Roadmap Ahead
22.11 Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Biodiesel Impact on Environment and Health [Go to Page]
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Effect on Air Quality [Go to Page]
23.2.1 Emissions from Biodiesel Combustion
23.2.2 Agrochemicals in the Atmosphere
23.3 Effect on Water Resources [Go to Page]
23.3.1 Water Availability
23.3.2 Water Pollution
23.4 Effect on Soil [Go to Page]
23.4.1 Soil Productivity
23.4.2 Soil Erosion
23.4.3 Fuel Spillage
23.5 Effect on Biodiversity
23.6 Greenhouse Gas Emissions [Go to Page]
23.6.1 Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions
23.6.2 Uncertainties about the GHG Emissions Savings
23.7 Public Safety and Health [Go to Page]
23.7.1 Occupational Health Hazards
23.7.2 Impact of Soil Pollution on Health
23.7.3 Impact of Water Pollution on Health
23.7.4 Impact of Air Pollution on Health
23.7.5 Impact of Food Security Issues on Health
23.7.6 Impact of Indirect Pathways on Health
23.7.7 Safe Handling
23.8 Challenges
23.9 Summary
23.10 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 24: Biodiesel: Socioeconomic and Political Aspects [Go to Page]
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Policy Impetus to Biodiesel Production in Various Countries
24.3 The Oil Sector: Its Political Power and Sensitivity [Go to Page]
24.3.1 Oil Price Change
24.3.2 Oil and Its Impact on Geopolitics
24.4 Social and Environmental Aftermath of Biodiesel Production [Go to Page]
24.4.1 Land Use Changes
24.4.2 Labor Rights
24.5 Conclusions
References
Index [Go to Page]

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